**POETIC_DEVICES_and_LITERARY_TERMS_USE_IN_POETRY ANALYSIS **

 Prof.Abdelhamid Fouda 

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#ALLITERATION 

- is the repetition of initial consonant sounds.  

#ALLUSION 

- is a direct or indirect reference to a familiar figure, place or event from history, literature, mythology or the Bible. 

#APOSTROPHE - 

a figure of speech in which a person not present is addressed.

#ASSONANCE -

 is a close repetition of similar vowel sounds, usually in stressed syllables.

  

#ATMOSPHERE / MOOD 

- is the prevailing feeling that is created in a story or poem.

#CACOPHONY - 

Harsh sounds introduced for poetic effect - sometimes words that are difficult to pronounce. 

  

#CLICHE - 

an overused expression that has lost its intended force or novelty.

#CONNOTATION - 

the emotional suggestions attached to words beyond their   strict definitions.  

#CONSONANCE -

 the close repetition of identical consonant sounds before and after different vowels. 

#CONTRAST - 

the comparison or juxtaposition of things that are different

#DENOTATION - 

the dictionary meaning of words. 

 

#DISSONANCE -

 the juxtaposition of harsh jarring sounds in one or more lines.

#EUPHONY - 

agreeable sounds that are easy to articulate.  

#EXTENDED METAPHOR 

- an implied comparison between two things which are essentially not alike. These points of comparison are continued throughout the selection.

#FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE - 

Language used in such a way as to force words out of their literal meanings by emphasizing their connotations to bring new insight and feeling to the subject.

#HYPERBOLE - 

an exaggeration in the service of truth - an overstatement. 

#IDIOM - 

is a term or phrase that cannot be understood by a literal translation, but refers instead to a figurative meaning that is understood through common use.

#IMAGERY - 

is the representation through language of sense experience. The    image most often suggests a mental picture, but an image may also represent a sound, smell, taste or tactile experience. 

#IRONY - 

is a literary device which reveals concealed or contradictory meanings.  

 

#JARGON - 

language peculiar to a particular trade, profession or group. 

#JUXTAPOSITION  -

 is the overlapping or mixing of opposite or different situations, characters, settings, moods, or points of view in order to clarify meaning, purpose, or character, or to heighten certain moods, especially humour, horror, and suspense. also Contrast

#LITERAL_LANGUAGE - 

what is said is based in reality without the comparisons used in figurative language. 

 

#LITOTES - 

a form of understatement in which something is said by denying the opposite.

  #METAPHOR -

 a comparison between two things which are essentially dissimilar. The comparison is implied rather than directly stated.  

#METER - 

any regular pattern of rhythm based on stressed and unstressed syllables. 

#METONYMY -

 use of a closely related idea for the idea itself. 

#MOOD - 

see atmosphere

#ONOMATOPOEIA 

- the use of words which sound like what they mean.

#OXYMORON - 

two words placed close together which are contradictory, yet have truth in them.

#PARADOX - 

a statement in which there is an apparent contradiction which is actually true. 

 

#PERSONIFICATION -

 giving human attributes to an animal, object or idea.

#RHYME - 

words that sound alike

#RHYME SCHEME - 

any pattern of rhymes in poetry. Each new sound is assigned the next letter in the alphabet.

#RHYTHM - 

a series of stressed or accented syllables in a group of words, arranged so that the reader expects a similar series to follow.

#SIMILE -

 a comparison between two things which are essentially dissimilar. The comparison is directly stated through words such as like, as, than or resembles.

#SPEAKER - 

the "voice" which seems to be telling the poem. Not the same as the poet; this is like a narrator.

#SYMBOL - 

a symbol has two levels of meaning, a literal level and a figurative level. Characters, objects, events and settings can all be symbolic in that they represent something else beyond themselves.

#SYNEDOCHE -

 the use of a part for the whole idea.

 

#THEME - 

is the central idea of the story, usually implied rather than directly stated. It is the writer's idea abut life and can be implied or directly stated through the voice of the speaker. It should not be confused with moral or plot.

#TONE - 

is the poet's attitude toward his/her subject or readers. it is similar to tone of voice but should not be confused with mood or atmosphere. An author's tone might be sarcastic, sincere, humourous . . .

#TROPE -  

a figure of speech in which a word is used outside its literal meaning. Simile and metaphor are the two most common tropes. 

#UNDERSTATEMENT -

 this is saying less than what you mean in the service of truth.

#VOICE - 

the creating and artistic intelligence that we recognize behind any speaker.

  

Since poetry is, essentially, a form of creative writing, it uses many literary devices mentioned above in the following post. Each can be used by the poet to change the content and meaning of the poem.

One of the most popular literary devices used in many poems is symbolism, or when one thing is used to represent another. For example, Robert Frost's famous poem "The Road Not Taken" describes two different paths in the woods. While the poem makes sense if it's read literally, the roads he writes about are actually symbols for something else -- they represent the different choices you make in life.

#ALLITERATION 

- is the repetition of initial consonant sounds.  

#ALLUSION 

- is a direct or indirect reference to a familiar figure, place or event from history, literature, mythology or the Bible. 

#APOSTROPHE - 

a figure of speech in which a person not present is addressed.

#ASSONANCE -

 is a close repetition of similar vowel sounds, usually in stressed syllables.

  

#ATMOSPHERE / MOOD 

- is the prevailing feeling that is created in a story or poem.

#CACOPHONY - 

Harsh sounds introduced for poetic effect - sometimes words that are difficult to pronounce. 

  

#CLICHE - 

an overused expression that has lost its intended force or novelty.

#CONNOTATION - 

the emotional suggestions attached to words beyond their   strict definitions.  

#CONSONANCE -

 the close repetition of identical consonant sounds before and after different vowels. 

#CONTRAST - 

the comparison or juxtaposition of things that are different

#DENOTATION - 

the dictionary meaning of words. 

 

#DISSONANCE -

 the juxtaposition of harsh jarring sounds in one or more lines.

#EUPHONY - 

agreeable sounds that are easy to articulate.  

#EXTENDED METAPHOR 

- an implied comparison between two things which are essentially not alike. These points of comparison are continued throughout the selection.

#FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE - 

Language used in such a way as to force words out of their literal meanings by emphasizing their connotations to bring new insight and feeling to the subject.

#HYPERBOLE - 

an exaggeration in the service of truth - an overstatement. 

#IDIOM - 

is a term or phrase that cannot be understood by a literal translation, but refers instead to a figurative meaning that is understood through common use.

#IMAGERY - 

is the representation through language of sense experience. The    image most often suggests a mental picture, but an image may also represent a sound, smell, taste or tactile experience. 

#IRONY - 

is a literary device which reveals concealed or contradictory meanings.  

 

#JARGON - 

language peculiar to a particular trade, profession or group. 

#JUXTAPOSITION  -

 is the overlapping or mixing of opposite or different situations, characters, settings, moods, or points of view in order to clarify meaning, purpose, or character, or to heighten certain moods, especially humour, horror, and suspense. also Contrast

#LITERAL_LANGUAGE - 

what is said is based in reality without the comparisons used in figurative language. 

 

#LITOTES - 

a form of understatement in which something is said by denying the opposite.

  #METAPHOR -

 a comparison between two things which are essentially dissimilar. The comparison is implied rather than directly stated.  

#Meter- 

any regular pattern of rhythm based on stressed and unstressed syllables. 

#METONYMY -

 use of a closely related idea for the idea itself. 

#MOOD- 

see atmosphere

#ONOMATOPOEIA 

- the use of words which sound like what they mean.

#OXYMORON - 

two words placed close together which are contradictory, yet have truth in them.

#PARADOX - 

a statement in which there is an apparent contradiction which is actually true. 

 

#PERSONIFICATION -

 giving human attributes to an animal, object or idea.

#RHYME - 

words that sound alike

#RHYME SCHEME - 

any pattern of rhymes in poetry. Each new sound is assigned the next letter in the alphabet.

#RHYTHM - 

a series of stressed or accented syllables in a group of words, arranged so that the reader expects a similar series to follow.

#SIMILE -

 a comparison between two things which are essentially dissimilar. The comparison is directly stated through words such as like, as, than or resembles.

#SPEAKER - 

the "voice" which seems to be telling the poem. Not the same as the poet; this is like a narrator.

#SYMBOL - 

a symbol has two levels of meaning, a literal level and a figurative level. Characters, objects, events and settings can all be symbolic in that they represent something else beyond themselves.

#SYNEDOCHE -

 the use of a part for the whole idea.

 

#THEME - 

is the central idea of the story, usually implied rather than directly stated. It is the writer's idea abut life and can be implied or directly stated through the voice of the speaker. It should not be confused with moral or plot.

#TONE - 

is the poet's attitude toward his/her subject or readers. it is similar to tone of voice but should not be confused with mood or atmosphere. An author's tone might be sarcastic, sincere, humourous . . .

#TROPE -  

a figure of speech in which a word is used outside its literal meaning. Simile and metaphor are the two most common tropes. 

#UNDERSTATEMENT -

 this is saying less than what you mean in the service of truth.

#VOICE - 

the creating and artistic intelligence that we recognize behind any speaker.

  

Since poetry is, essentially, a form of creative writing, it uses many literary devices mentioned above in the following post. Each can be used by the poet to change the content and meaning of the poem.

One of the most popular literary devices used in many poems is symbolism, or when one thing is used to represent another. For example, Robert Frost's famous poem "The Road Not Taken" describes two different paths in the woods. While the poem makes sense if it's read literally, the roads he writes about are actually symbols for something else -- they represent the different choices you make in life.

𝕋𝕙𝕖 𝔸𝕘𝕖 𝕠𝕗 ℙ𝕠𝕡𝕖1700-1750

 Prof.  Abdelhamid Fouda 

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𝕋𝕙𝕖 𝔸𝕘𝕖 𝕠𝕗 ℙ𝕠𝕡𝕖1700-1750

Augustan Age/Classical Age 

Alexander Pope   1688-1744

  The greatest master of the Classical school

  Twickenham 

"The proper study of mankind is man" 

"True wit is what oft was thought but never so well expressed "

  PASTORALS (1709)

• Earliest important work

  AN ESSAY ON CRITICISM (1711)

• Heroic couplets

• A didactic poem 

• Published anonymously 1711

• Begins with an exposition of the rules of taste and the authority to be attributed to the ancient writers on the subject

• The laws by which a critic should be guided are then discussed, and instances are given of critics who have departed from them

  MESSIAH

• Published in the Spectator in May 1712

• A sacred eclogue

• Embodying in verse the Messianic prophecies of Isaiah

  WINDSOR FOREST (1713)

• Pastoral 

• topographical poem

• to celebrate the Peace of Utrecht 

•  It combines description of landscape with historical, literary, and political reflections

  THE RAPE OF THE LOCK (1712)

• Mock heroic 

• Brilliant poem

• A poem in two cantos subsequently enlarged to five cantos and thus published 1714

• Published in Lintot's Miscellany 1712

• When Lord Petre forcibly cut off a lock of Miss Arabella Fermor's hair, the incident gave rise to a quarrel between the families.

• Pope treated the subject in a playful mock-heroic poem, on the model of Boileau's

  TRANSLATIONS OF ILIAD AND ODYSSEY 

(Fenton and Broome, classical scholars) (1725 and 1726)

  POPE’S EDITION OF SHAKESPEARE (1725) 

  THEOBALD’S SHAKESPEARE RESTORED (1726) 

  THE DUNCIAD (1728)

• Appeared anonymously 1728

• Again in 1742

• Modelled on MAC FLECKNOE

• a mock-heroic satire 

Philosophical poems 

  TO LORD BATHURST

  OF THE USE OF RICHES

  OF THE KNOWLEDGE AND CHARACTER OF MEN

  OF CHARACTERS OF WOMEN

  AN ESSAY ON MAN 

• A philosophical poem in heroic couplets

• Not completed. 

• It consists of four epistles addressed to Bolingbroke

• Its objective is to vindicate the ways of God to man

• Deals with man's relations to the universe, to himself as an individual, to society, and to happiness

• Stewart – “the noblest specimen of philosophical poetry which our language affords” (Active and Moral Powers, 1828)

• Dr Johnson – “Never were penury of knowledge and vulgarity of sentiment so happily disguised.”

  MORAL ESSAYS

• Written under the influence of Lord Bolingbroke

• four ethical poems

• Pope – “Epistles to Several Persons”

• Epistle I (1734) - Addressed to Viscount Cobham, deals with the knowledge and

• characters of men

• Epistle II (1735) – Addressed to Martha Blount, deals with the characters of women

• Epistle III (1733) -  To Lord Bathurst, deals with the use of riches 

o The Epistle contains the famous characters of the 'Man of Ross' and 'Sir Balaam'

• Epistle IV ( 1731 ) - To Lord Burlington, originally subtitled 'Of False Taste', deals with the same subject as Epistle III, giving instances of the tasteless use of wealth

  IMITATIONS OF HORACE 

  EPISTLE TO DR. ARBUTHNOT

•  ODE FOR MUSIC ON ST CECILIA'S DAY (1713)

• One of his rare attempts at lyric.

22 ways to say 'thank you' in English and 15 ways to respond.

أهم 10 مهارات لإحتراف برنامج الورد 🔥

Thoughts.....

 Prof. Abdelhamid Fouda 

=========================

-في أغنية اسمها

Something just like this (coldplay)

فيها تساؤل مُرعب

 HOW MUCH U WANNA RISK! 

-في مقولة ل"ليو بوسكاليا" بتقول:

-The person who risks nothing, does nothing, has nothing, is nothing, and becomes nothing. He may avoid suffering and sorrow, but he simply cannot learn and feel and change and grow and love and live.

-فى جملة قرأتها قبل كدة منستهاش 

-To be free of fear is to be full of love. 

-نيكولاس سباركس (اللي كتب فيلم the notebook) كان بيقول:

-IN THE END… We only regret the chances we didn’t take, the relationships we were afraid to have,and the decisions we waited too long to make.

-نجيب محفوظ فى "أولاد حارتنا" قال:

-لا تخف، الخوف لا يمنع من الموت ولكنه يمنع من الحياة. 

معظمنا اللي في سن العشرينات حاليًا بيحط في مخيلته مليون حاجز تجاه أي حاجة عايز يحققها، بعضها واقع والكثير منها أوهام، فاللي يكون قدامه خطوة في أي حاجة في الحياة تستحق المجازفة -ونحط مليون خط تحت تستحق المجازفة دي-، خد الـ risk وجازف وده مش معناه إن في حاجة سهلة أو بتيجي على الجاهز.. 

“You can’t cross the sea merely by standing and staring at the water.”

ومُهم في المرحلة العمرية دي لأن لو فضلنا نعلي أسوار القلق والخوف جوانا، هيبقى أصعب ألف مرة هدمها بعد كدة

في كتاب born a crime: 

-We spend so much time being afraid of failure, afraid of rejection. But regret is the thing we should fear most. Failure is an answer. Rejection is an answer. Regret is an eternal question you will never have the answer to.

History of English Literature

 Prof. Abdelhamid Fouda 

=========================

*Introduction to Literature I: History of English Literature*

1) Characteristics of Anglo-Saxon Literature

2) Characteristics of Medieval Literature

3) General Background to Renaissance and Reformation

4) The Development of Sonnet

5) Elizabethan Drama, Prose and Poetry

6) Jacobean Drama, Metaphysical Poets, Milton

7) Restoration Drama

8) The Age of Reason and Neo-Classicism

9) Augustan Satire

10) The Rise of Novel

11) Romanticism

12) Victorian Drama, prose and Novel

13) Modern Drama, Prose, Novel and Poetry

What do we mean by Philosophy?

 Prof.Abdelhamid Fouda 

=============================

Philosophy?

Quite literally, the term "philosophy" means, "love of wisdom." In a broad sense, philosophy is an activity people undertake when they seek to understand fundamental truths about themselves, the world in which they live, and their relationships to the world and to each other. As an academic discipline philosophy is much the same. Those who study philosophy are perpetually engaged in asking, answering, and arguing for their answers to life’s most basic questions. To make such a pursuit more systematic academic philosophy is traditionally divided into major areas of study.

 

Metaphysics

At its core the study of metaphysics is the study of the nature of reality, of what exists in the world, what it is like, and how it is ordered. In metaphysics philosophers wrestle with such questions as:

Is there a God?

What is truth?

What is a person? What makes a person the same through time?

Is the world strictly composed of matter?

Do people have minds? If so, how is the mind related to the body?

Do people have free wills?

What is it for one event to cause another?

 

Epistemology

Epistemology is the study of knowledge. It is primarily concerned with what we can know about the world and how we can know it. Typical questions of concern in epistemology are:

What is knowledge?

Do we know anything at all?

How do we know what we know?

Can we be justified in claiming to know certain things?

 

Ethics

The study of ethics often concerns what we ought to do and what it would be best to do. In struggling with this issue, larger questions about what is good and right arise. So, the ethicist attempts to answer such questions as:

What is good? What makes actions or people good?

What is right? What makes actions right?

Is morality objective or subjective?

How should I treat others?

 

Logic

Another important aspect of the study of philosophy is the arguments or reasons given for people’s answers to these questions. To this end philosophers employ logic to study the nature and structure of arguments. Logicians ask such questions as:

What constitutes "good" or "bad" reasoning?

How do we determine whether a given piece of reasoning is good or bad?

 

History of Philosophy

The study of philosophy involves not only forming one’s own answers to such questions, but also seeking to understand the way in which people have answered such questions in the past. So, a significant part of philosophy is its history, a history of answers and arguments about these very questions. In studying the history of philosophy one explores the ideas of such historical figures as:

 

Plato Locke Marx

Aristotle Hume Mill

Aquinas Kant Wittgenstein

Descartes Nietzsche Sartre

What often motivates the study of philosophy is not merely the answers or arguments themselves but whether or not the arguments are good and the answers are true. Moreover, many of the questions and issues in the various areas of philosophy overlap and in some cases even converge. Thus, philosophical questions arise in almost every discipline. This is why philosophy also encompasses such areas as:

Philosophy of Law Philosophy of Feminism

Philosophy of Religion Philosophy of Science

Philosophy of Mind Philosophy of Literature

Political Philosophy Philosophy of the Arts

Philosophy of History Philosophy of Language

Gulliver’s Travels...

 Prof.Abdelhamid Fouda 

============================

Gulliver’s Travels: A Social and Political Allegory

Allegory means a story based on two levels, “apparent level and deeper”. Swift’s polemical tour de force ‘Gulliver’s Travels’ is a multi-genre text working on many levels. It is at once a folk-myth, a delightful children's story, a wonderful travelogue, a neurotic fantasy, and an unequivocal moral tale. Each of the four books—recounting four voyages to fictional exotic lands—may have a different theme but all are the attempts to deflate excessive human pride. Critics hail the work as a satiric reflection on the shortcomings of Enlightenment thought.

The form and structure of the whole work enhances Swift's purpose. By using outlandish humans such as midgets and giants, Swift allows us to examine the fallacies of mankind without being overly frightened. As Tuveson points out, "In Gulliver's Travels there is a constant shuttling back and forth between real and unreal, normal and absurd.”

From the start the Lilliputians arouse our interest and win our liking. The pigmies of Lilliput ingeniously capture the giant whom chance has cast on their shore. Gulliver becomes an object of curiosity. He is instantly given the name “Man-Mountain”. The manner in which several ladders are applied by the Lilliputians to feed Gulliver and the way Gulliver cripples the fleet of Blefuscu by his hand is incredible and exciting. Similarly the customs of Lilliputians, their dancing on the tight rope, conflict between Big Endians and Little Endians, and between high heel and low heel are also a great source of amusement to us. Moreover, “they bury dead with their head directly downward because they hold an opinion that in eleven thousand moons, they are all to rise again” which catches our attention.

Next, Gulliver reaches the island of Brobdingnag whose inhabitants are giants with a proportionately gigantic landscape. Here, Gulliver is exhibited as a curious midget, and has a number of local dramas such as fighting giant rats. He is frightened by a puppy, rendered ludicrous by the tricks of a mischievous monkey and embarrassed by the lascivious antics of the Maids of Honour. Gulliver’s adventures in Brobdingnag keep the interest of a young reader alive.

The voyage to Laputa, Lagado and other islands is also full of interesting and mysterious incidents. In Laputa, the Flying Island, every eatable thing e.g. the mutton, the beef, or the pudding, is given geometrical shape or the shape of musical instrument. The manner in which flappers are employed to draw the attention of their master and the way tailor takes his measure by employing a quadrant, rule and compasses is also very funny. The experiments which are in progress at the academy of projector in Lagado are preposterous and fantastic.

In the fourth voyage, Gulliver’s adventure touches the apex when we see him in the land of Houyhnhnms, the philosophical horses. The horses can talk to one another and can even teach their language to a human being. They so skilled and ingenious that they can execute such improbable tasks as threading needles or carrying trays, and so complacent in their belief that they are the “Perfection of Nature”.

So on the apparent level, all the four voyages contain the situations and incidents full of delightful adventures in a very funny and interesting manner and one can hardly reckon that these funny episodes of adventure can bear in deep sense a very lethal and poignant satire on the follies and absurdities of mankind. 

The first voyage in particular contains Swift's the most memorable shots at the political figures of his time. Flimnap’s dancing on the tight rope symbolizes Sir Robert Walpole’s dexterity in parliamentary tactics and political intrigues. The phrase “one of the king’s cushions” refers to one of king George I’s mistresses who helped to restore Walpole after his fall in 1717. High Admiral Skyresh Bolgolam which turns out to be Gulliver’s ‘mortal enemy’ represents Earl of Nottingham while Reldresal may stand for Lord Townshend or Lord Carteret who was appointed Lord Lieutenant of Ireland by Walpole.

Gulliver’s extinguishing of the fire in the queen’s palace is an allegorical reference to Queen Anne’s annoyance with Swift on writing “A Tale of a Tub”. The queen misinterpreted the book and got annoyed. The conflict between the Big-Endians and the Small-Endians in which “eleven thousand persons have, at several times, suffered death rather than submit to break their eggs at the smaller end” is the satirical allusion to the bitter schism and theological disputes between Roman Catholics and Protestants. Similarly Swift pokes fun at ‘Whigs’ and ‘Tories’ the two political parties in England by distinguishing from their low heels and high heels. 

In the second voyage of Gulliver, there is a general satire on humanity and human physiognomy. Much of this voyage is made up of lampooning British political history. After Gulliver tries to extol the virtues of his country-men, the king deduces that the history of Gulliver’s country “was only a heap of conspiracies, rebellions, murders, massacres, revolutions, banishments” etc. When Gulliver tries to improve his condition by offering him the secret of gun-powder, the king is horrified and dismissively concludes that “the bulk of your natives to be the most pernicious race of little odious vermin that nature ever suffered to crawl upon the surface of the earth”.

In the description Laputa, “Floating or Flying island”, there is satirical allusion to the English constitution and British colonial policy. The revolt of Lindalino becomes an allegory of Irish revolt against England and England’s violent foreign and internal politics. Swift also takes shots on certain ‘high-minded’ intellectuals who literally have their heads in the clouds. Among the sights Gulliver visits in his third voyage to Laputa, is the grand academy of Lagado, full of ‘projectors’ whose job is to come up with new ideas and inventions. The scientists are here busy trying “to extract sunbeams out of cucumbers, to convert human excrement into its original food, to build houses from the roof downwards to the foundation, to obtain silk from cobwebs”. This description is the firm pointer to Swift’s cynical view of contemporary science and Royal Society of England.

In his fourth and the last voyage to the country of Houyhnhnmms, Gulliver faces yet another inversion and there is a sharp-pointed satire on human moral shortcomings. Human beings here are represented as Yahoos—filthy, mischievous, gluttonous, ugly monsters that covet for some ‘shining stones’.

By contrast, the Houhnhnms are noble and benevolent animals governed by Nature and Reason and their “grand maxim, is to cultivate reason, and to be wholly governed by it.” . So it is a lethal attack on the human race to be represented inferior to horses mentally and morally. Gulliver tells his master-Houyhnhnm of all the evils and vices that were prevailing in European countries. Gulliver also tells about the numerous deadly weapons and the wars in western countries which were fought sometimes due to the “ambitions of princes” and sometimes due to “corruption of the ministers.”

Thus we can conclude that “Gulliver’s Travels” is a great work of allegory. The whole book is written in a fanciful manner, but beneath the fiction and under the surface there lies a serious purpose “to vex the world rather than divert it

Oedipus_as_a_Tragic_Hero

 Prof. Abdelhamid Fouda 

=============================

Oedipus_as_a_Tragic_Hero  ( M.A English)

Oedipus, the main character of the drama, is a great king with ideal traits in his individual personality also; but he is tragic due to a tragic flaw in terms of his moral disposition. That mixture makes us have the tragic experience of catharsis at the end of the drama when all the good of Oedipus is 'wasted' in his struggle against the bad.

In his struggle against the evil of his life, written by his fate, he invites the very doom he has always struggled to escape from.

The name of Oedipus, which means "swell foot" in Greek, comes from his swollen feet. Oedipus is that ill-fated tragic character whose parents had to throw him away on the third day of his birth, because it was told that he would kill his father and marry his mother. He is that tragic man who was unfortunately pitied by the shepherd who was supposed to throw him in the mountains of Kithairon. And instead of "dying that fortunate little death", he was given to the shepherd of another king Polybos. He got that name and the terrible, tragic mark on his swollen feet because of the skewer that his parents had used to pin his feet together before throwing him. And since he was destined to kill his father, he grew up in Corinth and ran away from there, on hearing the rumors of his evil fate, precisely to come to Thebes, kill his father and marry his mother, without knowing that he was running into the doom he thought he was escaping from.

King Oedipus can be taken as a typical hero of classical tragedies. Aristotle, the first philosopher to theorize the art of drama, obviously studied Oedipus and based his observation about the qualities of a tragic hero upon the example of Oedipus. In Aristotle's conception, a tragic hero is a distinguished person occupying a high position, living in prosperous circumstances and falling into misfortune because of an error in judgment. Aristotle used the word "hamartia" to indicate the protagonist's tragic weakness. According to Aristotelian percepts about tragedy, a tragic hero would be a man of noticeable qualities of behavior, intelligent and powerful, but by no means perfect. The fall of a totally saint like figure or a totally depraved rogue would violate the moral expectation and the audience would think such fall design less, chaotic and unjustifiable. Oedipus is neither a saint nor a rogue. Despite his qualities, he falls because of his mistakes. His position is indeed as frail as ours, and he fails like common men in one sense, and such frailty of human position is what tragedy has to make us realize.

In terms of the Aristotelian theory of tragedy, Oedipus is a tragic hero because he is not perfect, but has tragic flaws. Aristotle points out that Oedipus' tragic flaw is excessive pride (hubris) and self-righteousness. He also points out certain characteristics that determine as tragic hero. Using Oedipus as an ideal model, Aristotle says that a tragic hero must be an important or influential man who commits an error in judgment, and who must then suffer the consequences of his actions. The tragic hero must learn a lesson from his errors in judgment, his tragic flaw, and become an example to the audience of what happens when great men fall from their high social or political position.

Oedipus is a great and good king. The opening scene shows Oedipus in his magnificence, as a king who is so concerned about the welfare of his people. He addresses them as "my children" as behooved of the good kings of those times. He is a great man with respectable moral value and personality. As a man, he is dedicated to fighting and avoiding evil. His quest for truth is in fact the cause of downfall, and that is one of the most tragic things. As a king, he is an epitome itself. He loves his people. He gives his best to everything he does as a person and as a king. He is so worried by the problem of plague that he hasn't been sleeping: indeed, he says that he is suffering for the whole city alone. He has been walking restlessly instead of properly sleeping. He says that he will not talk to people through messengers and will not send messengers to them; he comes to them himself. He is a king of excellence, command and esteem. The priest glorifies the king as a man "Surest in mortal ways and wisest in the ways of god". He is a man who has become the king as much through the intelligence as through his power. It is he who solved the Sphinx's riddle and saved all citizens from the monster. He has always become the ultimate and almost the only rescue and hope at the time of misfortune.

Oedipus is also a morally good personality, to a great extent. It is so good of him to try to avoid the unbearable fate that he hears of we see that Oedipus is not only too confident in his own analysis and understanding of reality, he is also always afraid of doing wrong, He is adamant in his quest for the truth and the welfare of the people. He surrenders to the power of fate at the end. He is of respectful towards the oracles, in the sense that he has been afraid of what they have told him, and he does respect Teiresias before he is insulted by the apparently unjust and false charges against him.

But as a tragic character, Oedipus has his typical tragic flaw or "hamartia". Obviously pride is his hamartia. He is too proud and arrogant, and presumes too much about his own understanding and his powers to control his life. But he can't control reality, chances, fate and time. He has a bad temper and wrong judgment: the error of a tragic character is basically the "error of judgment" according to Aristotle. Oedipus wrongly judges his situation. It may be debatable as to whether the murder of a life-threatening stranger and the marriage of a consort are crimes. But, due to his presumption about his abilities, he has disobeyed the gods and his destiny. In his confidence upon what he knows and can do, he escapes from the professed evil fate, he kills a man old enough to be his father, and he marries a woman old enough to be his mother, without even doubting his wits.

His defiance of his predestined fate would be, in the time of Sophocles, a great crime. At least, we can clearly understand that Sophocles seems to be rather conservatively suggesting that the modem men of his time were wrong in trying to put too much emphasis on human potentials and powers of Understanding, action and shaping of their own lives. Whatever our twenty-first evaluation of the actions of Oedipus, the evaluation of his own creator Sophocles (and of the tellers of the myth in ancient times) is that it is morally wrong to fight against what fate has predetermined for us.

It seems that Oedipus could have avoided his ill-destiny if he had taken certain precautions. If he could promise of never laying a hand on a man and marrying an aged woman, he would have done better. From a human and the more prudent point of view, it can be concluded that Oedipus falls because he remains blind at many circumstances. In any case, he is a tragic character because he is humanly frail, morally intermediate, and good, but not unflawed by a tragic weakness, and therefore identifiable to us and our own inescapable human condition even today. Sophocles tragic character Oedipus is a unique tragic character that is entangled in the moral paradox of human life and reality. His life embodies the paradox of the human situation in which such things as tragedies are not only inevitable but also inescapable.

Oedipus as a tragic character is heroic because of his struggle, pitiable because of his weakness before the forces of his destiny, and his tragedy arouses fear in us, because he is in the same predicament (difficult situation) like us, though he was a great man otherwise. The irony of his fate is that fate has done what it wanted to before he started actually believing in it. The tragedy of Oedipus is that of the realization of his failure. And the tragedy of Oedipus is a tragedy of the human situation. His story tells us that man must do his best — but even then he cannot overcome the inevitable!

SOME_IMPORTANT_QUESTIONS

 Prof Abdelhamid Fouda 

==========================

#What_is_a_soliloquy?

Soliloquy is a device use in drama in which a character speaks to himself or herself (thinking loud) by showing his feelings or thoughts to audience.

#What_is_a_Lyric?

Lyric is a short poem in which poet’s own feelings and emotions are expressed normally having musical quality to sing.

#What_is_heroic_couplet?

A rhyming couplet written in iambic pentameter and it is traditionally used in epic and narrative poetry.

#What_is_Neo_classicism?

Neo-classicism is a eighteenth century western movement of art, literature and architecture. They got inspiration from ancient Greece and ancient Rome.

#What_is_a_mock_epic?

Mock-epic is a poem in which satire, exaggeration, irony and sarcasm is used to mock the subject or used the epic style for the trivial subject etc.

#What_is_a_complex_plot?

A complex plot according to Aristotle is that have ‘peripeteia’ (reversal) and ‘anagnorisis’ (denouement) without these is a simple plot.

#What_is_novella?

Novella is a narrative fictional work longer than story and shorter than novel.

#What_is_interior_monologue?

Interior monologue is the expression of internal thought, feelings and emotions of a character in dramatic or narrative form.

#What_is_blank_verse?

Blank verse is a form of poetry that is written in iambic pentameter but un-rhymed.

#What_is_Art_for_Arts_sake?

“Art for Arts’ sake” is nineteenth century literary movement which gives importance to aesthetic pleasure instead of moral, didactic or utilitarian function of literature.

#What_is_Epistolary_novel?

Epistolary novel is a narrated work. In this type of novel the story is narrated through letters sent by the observer or by those who participating in the events. Example: 18th century’s novel ‘Richardson’s Pamela and Clarissa etc.

#Differentiate_between_novel_and_novella.

Difference between novel and novella is length of the narrative work. Novella is shorter than novel and longer than short story but novel is long narrated work.

#Define_sonnet?#What_is_the_structure_of_Shakespearian_sonnet?

Sonnet is a fourteen line poetry written in iambic pentameter having some rhyming scheme. Shakespearian sonnet consists of three quatrains and final couplet with rhyme scheme of abab cdcd efef gg.

#What_is_the_difference_between_Open_formpoetry_and_Closed_form_poetry”?

Close form poetry used the fix pattern of stanza, rhyme and meter etc. For example: sonnet, limerick, haiku and sestina etc. Open form poetry does not use these fix patterns.

What is the structure of Spenserian stanza?

Spenserian stanza consist of nine lines, eight lines are in iambic pentameter and followed by single line in iambic hexameter. The last line is called Alexandrine.

#Differentiate_between_Blank_verse_and_Freeverse’.

‘Blank verse’ follows the fix meter like iambic pentameter and un-rhymed but ‘Free verse’ is also un-rhymed and does not follow the fix meter.

#How_can_you_define_Pastoral_elegy”?

Pastoral elegy is a poem about death. In this poem poet expresses his grief for the dead in rural setting or about the shepherds.

#Define_plot....

Plot is a logical arrangement of events in a story or play. The exposition, rising action, climax, falling action and resolution are the elements of plot.

#What_is_conflict?

Conflict is a problem or struggle in a story or play. It occurs in rising action, climax and falling action. It creates suspense and excitement in the story or play.

#How_can_you_explain_catharsis?

Term catharsis used by Aristotle in the definition of tragedy. It is the release of emotions of pity and fear.

#Define_black_comedy.

Black comedy is a humorous work in which human suffering regards as absurd and funny.

#What_is_comedy_of_manners?

Comedy of manners is a humorous work in which the manners of society or class satirized. For example: “The importance of being Ernest” by Oscar Wilde.....

#How_can_you_differentiate_between_flat_andround_characters?

A round character is a complex and dynamic. In this character improvement and change occurs during the course of work but flat character are uncomplicated and remains unchanged through the course of work.

#What_was_the_Oxford_movement?

Oxford movement started in 1833 and for the revival of Catholic doctrine in Anglican Church. It was against the conventional understanding of the religion.

#Define_Puritanism?

Puritanism was the religious movement started in sixteen century and the goal of the movement was to purify the church of England from its Catholic practices.

#What_is_Imagism?

Imagism is a movement of Anglo-American poets started in early nineteenth century in which they emphasize the use of clear images and simple and sharp language.

#What_is_meant_by_Stream_of_Consciousness?

Stream of Consciousness is a technique of narration in which the series of thoughts in the mind of the character are presented. “To the Lighthouse” by Virginia Woolf is one example.

#What_is_your_understanding_about_the_wordRenaissance?

Renaissance is a French word means rebirth. It is a literary movement of fourteenth century to sixteenth century the revival of literature takes place in this period. The Renaissance writers are Shakespeare, Christopher Marlow etc.

#What_is_meant_by_Gothic_Novel?

Gothic Novel is one type of novel. In this type the cruel passions and supernatural terror is presented. Example: Monastery or Haunted Castle etc.

#What_is_Metaphysical_Poetry?

Metaphysical poetry is a highly intellectualized poetry with the use of wit, imagery, conceits and paradox etc. It is obscure and rigid. For example: “John Donne’s poetry”

Puritan Age (1620-1660)

 Prof.abdelhamid Fouda 

========================

1. Background:-

The period between 1620-1675 was known as puritan age or age of Melton because during this period puritan prevailed in England and the literary figure John Melton was also a puritan. This age was the most disturb age in the history because of two reasons peoples were against the king Charles I which was killed in 1649 and the establishment of commonwealth under Cromwell. The puritans consider himself pure because of reformation which was started by Martin Luther King. Puritanism become a great national movement which included English Churchman as well as extreme separatist while the catholic had always held the idea of unity church the possibility of the idea of purely national Protestantism grew up. There was a conflict between the religious peoples and monarchy, the religious peoples were supported by the common peoples. The age was about moral standard and the literature of this age was not much developed.

Slogan Of Puritans:-

There were 2 slogans of puritan, one was the righteous mean everything should be done on time and other was liberty mean every one should be free.

Censer Board:-

In this age censer board was also there, the purpose of censor board was that they check a book before publication. If some thing in this book which was against them and also when they don’t like them they removed it from the book.

Wrong ideas of the puritans:-

The peoples of puritan were not a religious sects nor a narrow minded. They believed on past things on which peoples don’t believe

Literary Characteristics:-

• In literature of puritan age we find the same confusion as we find in religion and politics

• The medieval standard of clivarly , the impossible of love and romance are disappeared.

• The literary achievements of this so-called gloomy age are not of high high order

• But the one who was John Melton who was the representative of puritan age work for them

Difference between Puritan Age and Elizabeth Age:-

This age was differ due to 3 reasons of the preceding age.

1) In puritan age peoples have no unity of spirit while the people of elizabeth age have unity of spirit they love their country

2) Puritan works are somber in characters; it has sense of sadness, gloom and pessimism

3) This age was critcial and intellectual ; it makes us think

Literature of Puritan Age:-

In literature of puritan age we find many things

1) The school of spenser

2) Metaphysical poetry

3) Cavalier Poetry

4) John Melton

5) Prose Writer

1) The School Of Spenser:-

A group of English poets who, in the earlier part of the 17th c., were considerably under the influence of Edmund Spenser. The main poets were: Browne, Wither, Giles and Phineas Fletcher, and the Scots Drummond of Hawthornden and Sir William Alexander. In imagery, meter and diction, as well as in theme and subject matter, they were imitators of Spenser.

2) Metaphysical Poetry:-

• Metaphysical mean dealing with the relationship between spirit to matter or ultimate nature of reality

• “Meta” means “beyond” and “physics” means “physical nature”. Metaphysical poetry means poetry that goes beyond the physical world of the senses and explores the spiritual world. Metaphysical poetry began early in the Jacobean age in the last stage of the age of Shakespeare.

• Metaphysical poetry was blended mean emotional and intellutual

• Dr Johnson given the name metaphysical poet to the John Done and his group poets Among other metaphysical poets are Abraham Cowley, Henry Vaughan, Richard Crashaw, Andrew Marvell, George Herbert, Robert Herrick etc.

• Dr Johnson given the name metaphysical due to which they wrote different kinds of poetry

3) Cavalier Poetry:-

• The important poets were Herrick, Lovelace, Suckling, and Carew

• They were the follower of Ben Johnson

• The cavalier mean royalist who fought on the side of king during civil war

• They were persude classicist they were only the follower of Ben Johnson

John Melton:-

John Milton was a great English writer of the 17th Century. Milton was also a great believer in liberty. He also wrote poetry. In 1638 a famous poem by Milton called Lycidas was published. In 1642 civil war began between king and parliament. John Milton was a strong supporter of freedom so naturally he supported parliament. In 1642 Milton wrote pamphlets attacking episcopacy (the belief that the church should have bishops). In 1643 he wrote a pamphlet arguing that divorce should be allowed and in 1644 he wrote a pamphlet in favor of freedom of speech. Melton work in Charles excuation and also he create way for peoples. Melton was the representative of Puritism.

Famous Work:-

The famous work of “John Melton” was paradise lost. This book is one of the top book of the John Melton. The theme of this book is to justify the ways of God to men. He wrote this book in 12 books.

Prose Writer:-

John Bunyan was known for “Pilgrims Progress” and aslo known as prose pridise lost. Pilgrims progress was one of the 3 top class allegory of the world.Puritan Age (1620-1660)

1. Background:-

The period between 1620-1675 was known as puritan age or age of Melton because during this period puritan prevailed in England and the literary figure John Melton was also a puritan. This age was the most disturb age in the history because of two reasons peoples were against the king Charles I which was killed in 1649 and the establishment of commonwealth under Cromwell. The puritans consider himself pure because of reformation which was started by Martin Luther King. Puritanism become a great national movement which included English Churchman as well as extreme separatist while the catholic had always held the idea of unity church the possibility of the idea of purely national Protestantism grew up. There was a conflict between the religious peoples and monarchy, the religious peoples were supported by the common peoples. The age was about moral standard and the literature of this age was not much developed.

Slogan Of Puritans:-

There were 2 slogans of puritan, one was the righteous mean everything should be done on time and other was liberty mean every one should be free.

Censer Board:-

In this age censer board was also there, the purpose of censor board was that they check a book before publication. If some thing in this book which was against them and also when they don’t like them they removed it from the book.

Wrong ideas of the puritans:-

The peoples of puritan were not a religious sects nor a narrow minded. They believed on past things on which peoples don’t believe

Literary Characteristics:-

• In literature of puritan age we find the same confusion as we find in religion and politics

• The medieval standard of clivarly , the impossible of love and romance are disappeared.

• The literary achievements of this so-called gloomy age are not of high high order

• But the one who was John Melton who was the representative of puritan age work for them

Difference between Puritan Age and Elizabeth Age:-

This age was differ due to 3 reasons of the preceding age.

1) In puritan age peoples have no unity of spirit while the people of elizabeth age have unity of spirit they love their country

2) Puritan works are somber in characters; it has sense of sadness, gloom and pessimism

3) This age was critcial and intellectual ; it makes us think

Literature of Puritan Age:-

In literature of puritan age we find many things

1) The school of spenser

2) Metaphysical poetry

3) Cavalier Poetry

4) John Melton

5) Prose Writer

1) The School Of Spenser:-

A group of English poets who, in the earlier part of the 17th c., were considerably under the influence of Edmund Spenser. The main poets were: Browne, Wither, Giles and Phineas Fletcher, and the Scots Drummond of Hawthornden and Sir William Alexander. In imagery, meter and diction, as well as in theme and subject matter, they were imitators of Spenser.

2) Metaphysical Poetry:-

• Metaphysical mean dealing with the relationship between spirit to matter or ultimate nature of reality

• “Meta” means “beyond” and “physics” means “physical nature”. Metaphysical poetry means poetry that goes beyond the physical world of the senses and explores the spiritual world. Metaphysical poetry began early in the Jacobean age in the last stage of the age of Shakespeare.

• Metaphysical poetry was blended mean emotional and intellutual

• Dr Johnson given the name metaphysical poet to the John Done and his group poets Among other metaphysical poets are Abraham Cowley, Henry Vaughan, Richard Crashaw, Andrew Marvell, George Herbert, Robert Herrick etc.

• Dr Johnson given the name metaphysical due to which they wrote different kinds of poetry

3) Cavalier Poetry:-

• The important poets were Herrick, Lovelace, Suckling, and Carew

• They were the follower of Ben Johnson

• The cavalier mean royalist who fought on the side of king during civil war

• They were persude classicist they were only the follower of Ben Johnson

John Melton:-

John Milton was a great English writer of the 17th Century. Milton was also a great believer in liberty. He also wrote poetry. In 1638 a famous poem by Milton called Lycidas was published. In 1642 civil war began between king and parliament. John Milton was a strong supporter of freedom so naturally he supported parliament. In 1642 Milton wrote pamphlets attacking episcopacy (the belief that the church should have bishops). In 1643 he wrote a pamphlet arguing that divorce should be allowed and in 1644 he wrote a pamphlet in favor of freedom of speech. Melton work in Charles excuation and also he create way for peoples. Melton was the representative of Puritism.

Famous Work:-

The famous work of “John Melton” was paradise lost. This book is one of the top book of the John Melton. The theme of this book is to justify the ways of God to men. He wrote this book in 12 books.

Prose Writer:-

John Bunyan was known for “Pilgrims Progress” and aslo known as prose pridise lost. Pilgrims progress was one of the 3 top class allegory of the world.

20 Poets' defination of Poetry

 Prof Abdelhamid Fouda 

==========================

20 Poets' defination of Poetry

We’ve been thinking about poet Meena Alexander’s incredible address to the Yale Political Union, in which she refers to Shelley’s 1821 essay, A Defence of Poetry. The English poet’s work famously stated, “Poets are the unacknowledged legislators of the world.” Alexander concludes: “The poem is an invention that exists in spite of history… In a time of violence, the task of poetry is in some way to reconcile us to our world and to allow us a measure of tenderness and grace with which to exist… Poetry’s task is to reconcile us to the world — not to accept it at face value or to assent to things that are wrong, but to reconcile one in a larger sense, to return us in love, the province of the imagination, to the scope of our mortal lives.”

#Percy Bysshe Shelley

There are a few more choice snippets from Shelley’s 1821 essay, A Defence of Poetry , that articulated the essence of poetry:

“Poetry is indeed something divine. It is at once the centre and circumference of knowledge; it is that which comprehends all science, and that to which all science must be referred. It is at the same time the root and blossom of all other systems of thought; it is that from which all spring, and that which adorns all; and that which, if blighted, denies the fruit and the seed, and withholds from the barren world the nourishment and the succession of the scions of the tree of life. It is the perfect and consummate surface and bloom of all things; it is as the odor and the color of the rose to the texture of the elements which compose it, as the form and splendor of unfaded beauty to the secrets of anatomy and corruption.”

“Poetry is the record of the best and happiest moments of the happiest and best minds.”

“Poetry, in a general sense, may be defined to be ‘the expression of the imagination’: and poetry is connate with the origin of man.”

“Poetry is a mirror which makes beautiful that which is distorted.”

“Poetry is a sword of lightning, ever unsheathed, which consumes the scabbard that would contain it.”

“All high poetry is infinite; it is as the first acorn, which contained all oaks potentially.”

#Emily Dickinson

“If I read a book [and] it makes my whole body so cold no fire ever can warm me I know that is  poetry. If I feel physically as if the top of my head were taken off, I know that is poetry. These are the only way I know it. Is there any other way?”

#Robert Frost

“Poetry is when an emotion has found its thought and the thought has found words.”

“Poetry is what gets lost in translation.”

#Salvatore Quasimodo

“Poetry is the revelation of a feeling that the poet believes to be interior and personal which the reader recognizes as his own.”

#Edgar Allan Poe

“I would define, in brief, the Poetry of words as the Rhythmical Creation of Beauty. Its sole arbiter is taste. With the intellect or with the conscience, it has only collateral relations. Unless incidentally, it has no concern whatever either with duty or with truth.”

#Mary Oliver

“Poetry isn’t a profession, it’s a way of life. It’s an empty basket; you put your life into it and make something out of that.”

#T.S. Eliot

“Poetry is not a turning loose of emotion, but an escape from emotion; it is not the expression of personality, but an escape from personality. But, of course, only those who have personality and emotions know what it means to want to escape from these things.”

William Wordsworth

“I have said that poetry is the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings: it takes its origin from emotion recollected in tranquillity: the emotion is contemplated till, by a species of reaction, the tranquillity gradually disappears, and an emotion, kindred to that which was before the subject of contemplation, is gradually produced, and does itself actually actually exist in the mind.”

#Philip Larkin

“As a guiding principle I believe that every poem must be its own sole freshly created universe, and therefore have no belief n ‘tradition’ or a common myth-kitty or casual allusions in poems to other poems or poets, which last I find unpleasantly like the talk of literary understrappers letting you see they know the right people.”

#Matthew Arnold

“Poetry is at bottom a criticism of life; that the greatness of a poet lies in his powerful and beautiful application of ideas to life — to the question: How to live.”

Dylan Thomas

“Poetry is what in a poem makes you laugh, cry, prickle, be silent, makes your toe nails twinkle, makes you want to do this or that or nothing, makes you know that you are alone in the unknown world, that your bliss and suffering is forever shared and forever all your own.”

#Carl Sandburg’s “Tentative (First Model): Definitions of Poetry”:

1. Poetry is a projection across silence of cadences arranged to break that silence with definite intentions of echoes, syllables, wave lengths.

2. Poetry is an art practised with the terribly plastic material of human language.

3. Poetry is the report of a nuance between two moments, when people say, ‘Listen!’ and ‘Did you see it’ ‘Did you hear it? What was it?’

4. Poetry is the tracing of the trajectories of a finite sound to the infinite points of its echoes.

5. Poetry is a sequence of dots and dashes, spelling depths, crypts, cross-lights, and moon wisps.

6. Poetry is a puppet-show, where riders of skyrockets and divers of sea fathoms gossip about the sixth sense and the fourth dimension.

7. Poetry is a plan for a slit in the face of a bronze fountain goat and the path of fresh drinking water.

8. Poetry is a slipknot tightened around a time-beat of one thought, two thoughts, and a last interweaving thought there is not yet a number for.

9. Poetry is an echo asking a shadow dancer to be a partner.

10. Poetry is the journal of a sea animal living on land, wanting to fly the air.

Read the rest, here.

#John Cage

“There is poetry as soon as we realize that we possess nothing.”

#Kahlil Gibran

“Poetry is a deal of joy and pain and wonder, with a dash of the dictionary.”

#William Hazlitt

“Poetry is all that is worth remembering in life.”

“The light of poetry is not only a direct but also a reflected light, that, while it shows us the object, throws a sparkling radiance on all around it: the flame of the passions, communicated to the imagination, reveals to us, as with a flash of lightning, the inmost recesses of thought, and penetrates our whole being. Poetry represents forms chiefly as they suggest other forms; feelings, as they suggest forms or other feelings. Poetry puts a spirit of life and motion into the universe. It describes the flowing, not the fixed. It does not define the limits of sense, or analyze the distinctions of the understanding, but signifies the excess of the imagination beyond the actual or ordinary impression of any object or feeling.”

#Rita Dove

“Poetry is language at its most distilled and most powerful.”

#Edith Sitwell

“Poetry is the deification of reality.”

Marianne Moore

“Poetry is the art of creating imaginary gardens with real toads.”

#Theodore Roethke

“You must believe: a poem is a holy thing — a good poem, that is.”

“The poem, even a short time after being written, seems no miracle; unwritten, it seems something beyond the capacity of the gods.”

#James K. Baxter

“The poem is a plank laid over the lion’s den.”

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